Should the UK government restore the 50% additional rate of income tax Essay - 4

Should the UK government restore the 50% additional rate of income tax - Essay Example From a general perspective, one can easily identify the motives of the UK government in terms of pumping out fund flow from the economy. Observing with an economic perspective, the tax hike initiative of the UK government can be categorized as a major deterrent factor that has slowed down the pace of functionality of this nation’s economy by a considerable extent (Young & Saltiel, 2011). UK citizens, in the present market economic scenario, are literally forced towards paying high rates of taxes whereas the lower income groups are made to pay marginal amounts. Considering all these aspects, the discussion will majorly focus towards answering the currently rising question regarding whether the UK government should restore the 50 per cent additional hike of income tax rates. Maintaining correspondence, the details regarding these aspects have been elaborated in the underneath sections. As mentioned above, the objective of this paper is to analyse the impacts of income tax hike on the overall trade practices and economic pace of development of the UK. Based on the findings generated thereupon, appropriate conclusions will be made constructed as to whether the UK government should bring down its present income tax levels to 50% as previous. In contemporary macro-economic concepts, taxation is deemed as one of the fundamental tenets that holds significant influence on the stability and performance of any nation. It operates as a basic mechanism in the financial system of a country. The history behind imposing an additional 50% on the existing income tax rates can directly be linked with the hollow and un-rational mentality of the coalition government. The coalition government intended to impose a higher level of tax burden upon the richer income groups with the intention of attaining better revenue inflow along with stability in the overall wealth distribution process within

Organizational Behavior 3 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Organizational Behavior 3 - Essay Example By focusing on discussing the problem, both parties can have a better chance to solve the problem. Descriptive communication is all about being able to accurately and objectively describe the problem. In other words, negotiators should avoid judging or labeling a person for their behavior. Aside from focusing on solutions to the problem, negotiators should be able to maintain his/her objectivity when describing the event. Speaking in general terms can trigger miscommunication. To avoid misrepresenting the problem, negotiators should be specific when managing the problem. In general, specific communication means that negotiators should communicate in such a way that they will be clearly understood by the receiver of the message. In other words, they should speak direct to the point. Disjunctive communication is all about taking all the time to speak out one’s own thoughts without letting the other person express what they think. On the other hand, conjunctive communication is all about being able to initiate a conversation that flows smoothly. Therefore, when solving a problem, negotiators should make use of conjunctive communication and not disjunctive ones. For example, negotiator should avoid asking further questions before the other party completes his/her last sentence. Invalidating communication can make the receiver of the messages feel ignored, alienated, or worthless. On the other hand, validating communication is all about making the other party feel understood, valued, accepted, and recognized. Therefore, when solving a problem, negotiators should make use of validating communication and not invalidating ones. In most cases, this can be done by trying to avoid criticizing the other person. Owned communication is all about taking the responsibility for one’s own statement. For example, â€Å"I told you that you need to rest early†. Using the word â€Å"I† already indicate ownership

Men of Honor Essay Example for Free

Men of Honor Essay Cosby, B. and Robertson, S. (Producers) Tillman, G. (Director). (2001). Men of Honor [Motion Picture]. United States of American: Twentieth Century Fox Film Corporation The movie begins by introducing Master Chief Leslie W. (Billy) Sunday (Robert DeNiro), a US Navy Diver, who has recently gone AWOL. The movie then flashes back 25 years, where an African-American boy named Carl Braschear is watching his father work the plow on their farm. Carl wants to quit school so that he will be able to help work and then prevent the farm from ruin. Carl’s father is against his son being like him and stuck working on a farm. As time passes Carl (Cuba Gooding Jr. ) decides to join the Navy. On the day Carl is leaving for the Navy, Carl’s father gives his son a custom-built portable radio as a memento of home, and tells Carl to be the best, even if it means breaking the rules. Carl winds up working in the kitchens on the USS Hoist in the South Pacific. He and the other African American officer’s joke about the so-called bright future the Navy promised them. Afterwards, Carl and his friends go up on deck where the white officers are swimming (the black crew members are assigned a specific day when they can swim). Carl, tired and hot, decides to jump in the water. The white officers try and chase him down, but Carl out-swims all of them. The ships captain meets with Carl and, impressed with the boys speed, decides to transfer Carl to the search rescue swimmers, a group assigned to rescue anyone who falls overboard on ship. A few days later, the ship is rocked by an apparent crash. Carl assists the others on deck in raising a Navy Diver from the sea floor with the wounded pilot. The Diver is Master Chief Sunday. Carl, having seen Sundays actions as heroic, is inspired and vows to become a Navy Master Diver. Two years later, Carl is reporting for Diving School. Despite the harsh treatments, Carl performs admirably in his training, assembling machinery and adapting to the diving suit with much greater results than a large number of his classmates. Unfortunately, Carl is falling behind in the academic requirements-scoring only a 37 on his first exam. If he fails again, Carl will be kicked out of the program. One weekend, on leave, Carl comes to a library in the hopes of getting a tutor to help him. He meets a young woman named Jo who is studying medicine. Carl stays the entire night at the library reading and learning more about the Navy program. Next morning, Jo is so impressed by his progress that she agrees to help Carl. After diligent studying Carl passed his next exam allowing him to remain in the navy dive program. The time has come and Carl has passed his final exam with a 94, Chief Sunday has been instructed by the Senior Officer at the training to school to do whatever is necessary to prevent Carl from passing the final test. Most of the other recruits are able to complete the project in about 2 hours. Carl remains in the water for 9 hours after having to find all of his components in the excruciatingly cold water; Carl Brashear has passed his final and essentially graduated with honors from Diving School. After waiting several years as a stand by divers, Carl finally is assigned to a ship allowing him to dive. An accident on the ship’s deck causes the lines to snap. Carl shoves several other deck hands aside, but his own leg is caught by the snapped wire. Carl realizes his diving days are over but refuses to give up, he request his leg be amputated. He begins the difficult process of learning to move and act with a prosthetic. Master Chief Sunday pays Carl a visit while in the hospital and encourages him to not give up and they will train together. Two months later, after completing all the difficult tasks Naval Personnel placed before him, he was reinstated to full diving duty. Carl became the first African-American amputee to be on active Navy diving duty, and be promoted to Master Chief. Carl continued in his Naval career for another nine years before finally retiring. Personal Reflection Men or Honor is a movie which offers the viewer a great deal of emotion. Even though I previously watch the movie some years before, I felt this would be the perfect movie based on our studies. Carl, the main actor in the movie was determined to succeed in life. Because of his father’s confidence and determination, Carl wanted a better life. Society consistently provides roadblocks for everyone even those with some type of disability. In each segment of the movie, my feelings bounced between crying and laughing. Each time Carl was faced with an adversity, I found myself getting mad Critical Thought This week’s discussion dealt with Individuals and Disabilities. Over the years, people who have a â€Å"disability have been subjected to prejudice and more. And the first way to diminish someone is through language, by using words or labels to identify a person as less-than, as the others—not like us, and so forth. Once a person has been identified this way, it makes it easier to justify prejudice and discrimination. One of many concepts which caught my attention this week was the importance of putting a person first before the disability. This allows the disability to be in the background while the focus is on the person. Often times, people with disabilities are fighting society to let them know they are not their disabilities. People are not victims due to their disability; people are victims of attitudes and discrimination.

Effect of GDP on Electric Energy Consumption

Effect of GDP on Electric Energy Consumption A Regression Analysis of Energy Consumption with Cross-Country Data Abstract This paper reviews four existent studies and performs a cross-country multivariate regression analysis in order to determine the relationship among electric energy consumption, population, land area size, and economic growth as measured by GDP using data from authoritative sources. Results from the statistical tests confirm a positive correlation between the three regressors and the dependent variable. Introduction Energy is as much a part of us and our daily lives as is our very DNA. We need and use energy every single day even more than we may realize and it is available in an array of different forms. This analysis will focus on energy in its electrical form, where it is derived from the flow of electric charge caused by electrical attraction or repulsion between charged particles (Helmenstine, 2017). Since energy is such an essential part of life as we know it, it is not surprising that the topic has made headlines time and time again. The New York Times claims that, in a recent study, the United States was ranked eighth among twenty-three of the world’s top energy-consuming countries in efficiency, and that, according to Federal data, America loses as much as two-thirds of the power it generates through simple waste (Cavanagh, 2017). Understanding the impact of these statistics and deciding how to improve electric energy efficiency begins with interpreting the demand for and consumption of electric energy. This regression will seek to quantify the effects of a selection of variables on electric energy consumption, specifically examining Gross Domestic Product (GDP), national populations, and land area size across diversified countries around the world, and to serve as a reference and aid for policy makers in estimating marginal energy capacity needs in accordance with flu ctuations among these variables. I hypothesize that the coefficients on a country’s GDP, population, and land mass are positive when regressed against national, annual electric energy consumption. Review of Previous Literature There are a considerable number of studies that look at the effects of a nation’s production level as an economic component of its energy consumption. One pioneering study by Kraft and Kraft (1978) compiled annualized expenditure data for the time period between 1947 and 1974.   Using a bivariate Sims causality test, results presented a causal, unidirectional relationship from gross national product (GNP) to energy consumption for the United States. In order to adapt and distinguish my analysis from this 1978 study, I will focus on updated data from the time period between 2010 and 2015. Similarly, in order to improve general comprehensibility, I will regress gross domestic product (GDP), rather than GNP, on electric energy consumption. GNP is a logical and effective variable to use since it quantifies a country’s production values regardless of the geographic location of the production, but GDP is the more commonly utilized method for calculating a country’s e conomic standing and success in the world, so GDP is the particular measure we will use. Mohanty and Chaturvedi (2015) interpreted an extensive assortment of secondhand findings to determine whether electric energy consumption drives economic growth or vice versa. Mohanty and Chaturvedi reviewed forty-seven independent studies to compare the presence and direction of a causal relationship between economic growth and energy consumption. Twenty-six of the articles examined suggested the existence of a causal relationship from economic growth to energy consumption; thirty-two found energy consumption to have a causal relationship to economic growth. Eleven analyses found simultaneous causality between economic growth and energy consumption, and three found no relationship either way. After reviewing the empirical research, Mohanty and Chaturvedi then collected annualized data from India for the time period from 1970-1971 to 2011-2012 and applied the two-step Engle-Granger technique along with the Granger causality/Block exogeneity Wald test. Results suggested that electric energy consumption does in fact fuel economic growth in both the short run and the long run. However, this analysis revolves around Indian data, and the authors conclude that the lack of consensus on the relationship between energy consumption and economic growth is primarily a result of country-specific economic structures, methodology adopted, and varying period of study. In order to build upon this study, I will use a similar time frame, from 2010-2015, and I will include data from one hundred seventy countries to evaluate energy consumption amongst a diverse selection of industrial systems. Ameyaw et al (2007) argues that electricity performs an essential function in the economic development of most countries. The detailed analysis specifically explores the causality nexus, the estimation of elasticity of energy consumption on economic growth and vice versa, in response to its importance in formulating and implementing energy consumption policy and environmental policy. Ameyaw et al targeted the study around Ghana after discovering that the country has not been evident or represented in much of the existent research. Amassing time series data for Ghana between 1970 and 2014, the study implements the Cobb-Douglas growth model and conducts the Vector Error Correction model in order to strategically verify the error correction adjustment. Finally, similar to the test performed by Mohanty and Chaturvedi, Ameyaw et al exercised the Granger Causality test to determine the direction of causality between electric energy consumption and economic growth. The observed findings rev ealed the existence of a unidirectional, causal relationship running from GDP to energy consumption. As a means of expanding upon this analysis, I will, as mentioned previously, use cross-country data and more recent data from 2015. Pao et al (2014) performed the final analysis which we will examine in this study. Data for this investigation were collected from Brazil during the time period between 1980 and 2008. Similar to Mohanty and Chaturvedi and to Ameyaw et al, Pao et al applied the Granger Causality test to the dataset. The results revealed a unidirectional, short-run causality from energy consumption to economic growth along with a bidirectional, robust causality between the two variables. A co-integration test was also implemented, and the outcome was the indication of a long-run equilibrium relationship between variables with electric energy consumption seeming to be real GDP elastic, which suggests that energy consumption has a strong, positive influence on variations in GDP. In the acknowledgement of previous literature, Ameyaw et al found evidence to support bidirectional, unidirectional, and no causality. This inconsistency was attributed not only to differences in location and economic structure, but also to the methodologies used in each analysis. The policy and social impacts of each outcome were explained, beginning with unidirectional causality from economic growth to energy consumption, as this paper seeks to prove. Such an outcome may, according to Ameyaw et al, imply that the implementation of energy conservation policies may have little or no adverse effect on economic growth. On the other hand, if a unidirectional causality is found to run from energy consumption to economic growth, then it is possible that reducing energy consumption could lead to a recession in economic growth, and that increasing energy consumption might positively contribute to a country’s economic growth. In contrast, the presence of bidirectional causality between energy consumption and GDP is likely to mean that economic growth may demand more energy while greater energy consumption might encourage economic growth. Accordingly, energy conservation attempts may inadvertently stunt econo mic growth. Finally, a lack of causality in either direction would indicate a rise in GDP may not affect electric energy consumption, and that energy conservation policies may have no influence on economic growth. It is important to note that all of the data in this study were converted into natural logarithms prior to the empirical analysis so that this series can be interpreted in growth terms rather than raw values. Similar to this study, I will include policy recommendations in the conclusion according to the empirical results from my regression. Specification of the Model Following the empirical literature in energy economics, it is logical to form a multivariate regression model between electric energy consumption and economic growth as follows: ECt = ÃŽ ²0 + ÃŽ ²1Popt + ÃŽ ²2LAt + ÃŽ ²3GDPt + ut, where EC represents energy consumption, Pop is population size, LA represents the land area as determined by the physical size of a country, and GDP is real GDP. The error term, ut, is assumed to be independent and identically distributed (iid) with a mean of zero and a constant variance. GDP, for this experiment, has been calculated as follows: GDP = C + I + G + NE, where C is national consumption, I is representative of investment, G is government expenditure, and NE is net exports which is measured as total imports subtracted from total exports. In accordance with observed research, the estimator coefficient on GDPt is expected to be positive; I further hypothesize that the coefficients on Popt and LAt will also be positive, such that: H0: ÃŽ ²1 ≠¤ 0, ÃŽ ²2 ≠¤ 0, and ÃŽ ²3 ≠¤ 0 H1: ÃŽ ²1 > 0, ÃŽ ²2 > 0, and ÃŽ ²3 > 0 Data Description Data for this study has been collected for the time period between 2010 and 2015 across one hundred seventy countries around the world. The regression will be performed using the 2015 data for the following three independent variables: population, land area, and GDP. Population is a sensible variable since it is logical to hypothesize that an area with higher population will have a more complex economic and social infrastructure and consequently greater demand for electric energy. Land area is reasonably expected to have the same effect on electric energy consumption as population does, since a larger country likely has a greater population and so on. The final variable to be regressed is GDP since it is a rational measure of economic growth and success. More developed countries, a.k.a. those with higher GDP, commonly have more advanced infrastructures and more taxing industrial and agricultural systems; subsequently, greater demand for electric energy is inferential. Population and GDP data were compiled from the World Bank, a regularly updated, open-access center for international data and statistics. To enhance comprehensibility, GDP values have been adjusted for inflation to reflect current U.S. dollars (USD). Electric energy consumption data were drawn from the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), a government funded organization dedicated to collecting and analyzing impartial, independent energy data. Information from the EIA’s public access website is trusted and used by legislators, policy makers, and statisticians around the world. Figure 1. Cross-country scatter plots of the energy consumption and real GDP, 2015 Figure 1 is a scatter plot showing the relationship between electric energy consumption (in billion Kilowatthours) and GDP (in real USD). Containing all one hundred seventy observations, a cluster in the bottom left corner is undeniable, given the exception of a few outliers. Figure 2 adjusts to show a clearer view of the majority of the data, excluding the top ten countries with the highest GDP. Figure 2. Zoomed in view of Figure 1 to exclude outliers Figure 3. Summary statistics for the year 2015   Figure 3 shows the descriptive statistics of each variable with the full one hundred seventy observations included. Results The following table, Figure 4, presents a summarization of the results from four separate regression tests performed on the dataset: As expected, the outcomes offer beta coefficients which estimate a positive correlation between each independent variable and the dependent variable. However, it is interesting to note that the intercept value is only statistically significant in the fourth regression, when all variables have been included. Simultaneously, the fourth regression possesses the highest R2 and adjusted R2, which proposes a reliable, positive relationship between the independent variables and electric energy consumption. Regardless of the insignificant intercept terms, each of the first three regressions is worth noting. In the first analysis, population alone is regressed against energy consumption. The coefficient on the population is positive and statistically significant at the 1% level. This indicates that countries with larger populations will, at least theoretically, have greater demand for electric energy. The magnitude of the coefficient estimator on population is minimal, such that a unitary increase in population will cause a subsequent increase in demand for electric energy by just 0.00000257; nevertheless, it is a positive influence, and that satisfies our originaly hypothesis. R2 and the adjusted R2 for this test are 0.56 and 0.55, respectively, indicating overall significance in explaining variance among the dependent variable. Land area is treated as the sole regressor in the second regression. Similar to the first regression, the coefficient on land area is positive and statistically significant at the 1% level. One key difference, however, is the value of the intercept term. The first regression shows a positive intercept, while the second has a negative one. The coefficient estimator value and magnitude are roughly the same though, with a value of 0.000232 and unsubstantial magnitude. R2 and the adjusted R2 are 0.48 and 0.47, respectively, signifying acceptable importance in explaining variance among the dependent variable. The final simple linear regression performed is the third test which considers GDP as the lone regressor. Again, like the previous two regressions, this test shows a positive coefficient on GDP that is statistically significant at the 1% level. The intercept value is positive, similar to the first regression and different from the second. The coefficient estimator is noticeably smaller in this regression, however, with a value of 0.000000000153. Such a low value suggests questionable magnitude and importance, especially when combined with the inferior R2 and adjusted R2 value of 0.43. The fourth and final regression completed is the test which regresses all three of our independent variables against energy consumption. This test is the only one which has a statistically significant intercept, but it is similar to the other regressions in that the coefficient on each independent variable is positive and significant at the 1% level. The values on the intercept, population term, land area term, and GDP term are as follows: -52.03, 0.00000136, 0.000129, and 0.0000000000498, respectively. The R2 and adjusted R2 share a value of 0.70, explaining an impressive percentage of variation among the dependent variable. Conclusion The analysis in this paper shows that GDP, population, and land area size all have a positive impact on energy consumption. These effects are statistically significant, even at the 1% level. My results match those of much of the existent literature, including Kraft and Kraft (1978), who use data from 1947 to 1974. This analysis confirms their findings using recent data, suggesting that experimental methodologies adopted by individual researchers may play a bigger role in variations among results than time periods do. The fact that there is such a lack of consensus among empirical results implies that policy makers should closely examine the techniques used to achieve the results they are given and thoroughly consider the differences in the economic structure of their country compared to countries included in studies. This is exactly what Ameyaw et al (2007) had in mind when they specified their test around Ghana’s data, improving applicability of the results to environmental and energy conservation policy makers in the country of Ghana. The conclusions above, however, are indeed subject to a number of limitations. First, it is unclear to what extent these results can be applied to any individual country. Looking at global policy decisions, it is arguable, based on my results, that energy conservation attempts would likely have no negative impact on economic growth and development. However, previous literature has proposed that the relationship between economic growth and energy consumption is likely to differ among diverse countries with unique economic structures and geographic conditions. Second, there may be a host of other variables that affect electric energy consumption, such as funding available for, technological advancement in, and national ability and willingness to adopt renewable energy sources as these sources may be more or less efficient and consequently alter our interpretation of the energy consumption data. Including such quantities in my regression would increase the precision of the estimations a nd simultaneously help to eliminate potential omitted variable bias. The ways in which economic growth impacts electric energy consumption are not necessarily clear. A rise in economic growth may be associated with an initial increase in CO2 emissions, which could worsen economic activity or encourage individuals to seek alternative energy sources. As a result, GDP would fall while renewable energy consumption would grow exponentially. Such investigations, however, are left for future research. Bibliography Ameyaw, B., Oppong, A., Abruquah, L. and Ashalley, E. (2017). Causality Nexus of Electricity Consumption and Economic Growth: An Empirical Evidence from Ghana. Open Journal of Business and Management, 05(01), pp.1-10. Cavanagh, T. (2017). Opinion | Why Is America Wasting So Much Energy?. [online] Nytimes.com. Available at: [Accessed 2 Dec. 2017]. Data.worldbank.org. (2017). GDP, PPP (current international $) | Data. [online] Available at: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.PP.CD [Accessed 2 Dec. 2017]. Eia.gov. (2015). International Energy Statistics. [online] Available at: https://www.eia.gov/beta/international/data/browser/#/?pa=0000002c=ruvvvvvfvtvnvv1urvvvvfvvvvvvfvvvou20evvvvvvvvvnvvuvoct=0tl_id=2-Avs=INTL.2-2-AFG-BKWH.Avo=0v=Hend=2015 [Accessed 2 Dec. 2017]. Helmenstine, A. (2017). What Electrical Energy Is and How It Works. [online] ThoughtCo. Available at: https://www.thoughtco.com/electrical-energy-definition-and-examples-4119325 [Accessed 2 Dec. 2017]. Kraft, J. and Kraft, A. (1978) On the Relationship between Energy and GNP. Journal of Energy Development, 3, 401-403. Mohanty, A. and Chaturvedi, D. (2015). Relationship between Electricity Energy Consumption and GDP: Evidence from India. International Journal of Economics and Finance, 7(2), pp.186-202. Pao, H., Li, Y. and Fu, H. (2014). Causality Relationship between Energy Consumption and Economic Growth in Brazil. Smart Grid and Renewable Energy, 05(08), pp.198-205.

Internet Privacy: Government Should Not Regulate Encryption or Cryptogr

Internet Privacy: Government Should Not Regulate Encryption or Cryptography Privacy rights have been an important issue through out time, and it has been increasing in importance as we have moved into the electronic/information age. Keeping that privacy had become a growing concern for many businesses and consumers. With all the information being sent across the web, people are very concerned about their personal information falling into the wrong hands. One way to help protect your privacy on the net is by using an encryption program. Even though they are not completely unbreakable, an encryption program is one of the best ways to protect against outside intrusions. Despite this fact, the government wants too place legislation on encryption services that can be a potential danger to both the development of encryption systems and to your rights. According to the ACLU, the Clinton Administration adopted the "Clipper Chip" plan in 1993. This proposal would require every user of encryption to give the government their decryption keys. This, essentially, would give the government free access to all private and non-private communications, both stored and real-time. "This is the equivalent of the government requiring all homebuilders to embed microphones in the walls of homes and apartments." ( ACLU White Paper: Big Brother in the Wires; Wiretapping in the Digital Age ). There was also a proposal for the Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act (CALEA). This FBI-based law would "require the telecommunications industry to build enhanced digital wiretapping capabilities into the Nation's telephone system. (EFF Press Release & Joint EFF/ACLU/EPIC Statement on ACP) There has been strong opposition to this plan. Many peopl... ...o force encryption users to hand over their decryption keys. It seems as though the government is really more focused on spying on citizens than it is about fighting crime. There does not appear to be any sufficient proof to justify their claim to need decryption keys to fight crime and terrorism (especially terrorism). I believe that if the government wants to use electronic surveillance on encrypted information, for a justifiable reason, then they should work in correspondence with encryption system users. I feel that privacy is a very important right of all people; and people should be able to try and protect it to the best of their ability, as long as no one else gets hurt in the process. People's rights to privacy should not be taken so lightly by our government. I would think that Bill Clinton, of all people, would understand the want, and need, for privacy.

A Convenient Reality Essay -- Environmental Management Science

"Future generations may well have occasion to ask themselves, 'What were our parents thinking? Why didn't they wake up when they had a chance?'" (An Inconvenient Truth). Throughout the last fifteen years, this type of thought has led to a revolution within the United States. This revolution is not against the government, but against pollution and wastefulness. This upheaval of the green movement and decreasing non-renewable resources is producing a generation focus on expansion, recycling, and most importantly, energy production. Advertisements endorsing "going green" fill television, radio, and magazines showing products that will eventually make energy production start in the home. These advancements are numerous and are beginning to be reported at an astonishing rate. Even the military has begun to take measures, such as searching for alternative fuel sources, in an effort to reduce its ‘carbon-footprint’. From the 18th to the middle of the 19th century is commo nly referred to as The Industrial Revolution; the 20th to the 21st century will be potentially known as The Green Revolution. Advances in production methods will be one of the next big steps that industry takes. Although these methods will decrease emissions and lead to an entirely foreign type of society potentially unforeseen problems may arise. The global population is growing at an unprecedented rate and by the year 2050 the global population is expected to exceed twenty billion people, an almost 150 percent increase from today (â€Å"Global Population Projections†). Although a green technology will develop a less wasteful society, the jumps in population growth could diminish or completely reverse these gains. These conclusions are evident even today; â€Å"Al... ...ow. The ozone hole and the accumulation of greenhouse gasses will not be solved today but rather further down the road once we discover techniques to battle these problems. One-hundred years from now may look completely different from the aforementioned vision; however, it will undoubtedly reflect the green movement and decisions that are made over the next twenty years. Works Cited An Inconvenient Truth. Prod. Lawence bender, Scott Burns and Laurie David. Direc. Davis Guggenheim. Perf. Al Gore. DVD. Paramount Classics. 2006 Annex, Robert. â€Å"Stimulating Innovations in Green Technology.† American Behavioral Scientist. 44.2 (200): 188-212. Print. â€Å"Global Population Projections.† Web. 4 Oct 2010. Silberberg, Martin S. Chemistry: the Molecular Nature of Matter and Change. 5th ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2009. Print.

How Psychological Research Has Helped in the Understanding of Criminal Behaviour Essay

Albert Bandura created the bobo doll experiment in 1961, the aim of this experiment was to show that if children where witnesses to aggressive displays by an adult of some sort they would imitate this behaviour when given an opportunity. The tested group contained 36 young girls and 36 young boys all aged between 4 and 5 years which was then divided into 3 groups of 24 – the aggressive condition, the non aggressive condition and the control group. The first group involved the children watching aggressive models, where the children where then subdivided by sex of the role model they were exposed to. The second group involved the children watched non aggressive models, where the children were also subdivided by the sex of the role model which they were exposed to. This left the two conditioned groups subdivided into eight experimental groups each containing 6 subjects. They were 6 boys with the same sex model, 6 boys with opposite model, 6 girls with the same sex model and 6 girls with the opposite model. With 3 different groups, Bandura had created a complicated design for the study which resulted in 3 independent variables; the conditions the children were exposed to, the sex of the child and the sex of the role model. Each child was then tested individually and the findings where then recorded. The experiment was done in an artificial environment and the researcher manipulated the independent variables into the conditions. In stage one of the experiment, the children were brought into the experimental room by the examiner. The room was set out as a nursery play room since that was the appropriate setting for the age of the children. One corner of the room had been arranged as a child’s play area consisting of a small table and chair and picture stickers. In the opposite corner of the room was where the adult models would be followed by a small table and chair, tinker toy set and a five foot bobo doll. In the aggressive condition the model began by playing with the tinker toy set but after a couple minutes the model turned its attention to the bobo doll and was aggressive towards the doll in a very distinctive way. Were as in the non aggressive condition the model ignored the bobo doll and played with the tinker toys in a gentle manner. After 10 minutes the children where then taken into new room. In stage two of the experiment the children were brought into a room with relativity attractive toys. In this room the children were to be subjected to mild aggression arousal. Once the children started to play with the toys, the experimenter took them off the children claiming they had been reserved for the other children. The children were then taken into the last and final room for stage three of the experiment. In this room the children were told they could play with any toys in there, the toys in stage three consisted of both non aggressive and aggressive toys. The children were kept in the room for 20 minutes where observations were made through a one way mirror by judges. With the observation and findings of this experiment, three measures of imitation were obtained. For this study the observers’ looked specifically for responses from the children that were very similar to the display by the adult model. They included; imitation of physical aggression, imitation of verbal aggression and imitation of non verbal aggression. With these observations, the researchers were able to consider which children imitate the models, which models the children imitated and whether the children showed a general increase of aggressive behaviour. The main findings of this study were that the children in aggressive model condition made more aggressive responses than the children in the non aggressive condition. They also found that the boys made more aggressive responses than girls, as well as the sex of the children being more aggressive if the model was of the same sex. These findings support Bandura’s social learning theory that children learn social behaviour through observation learning, which children learn through imitation. This study has helped in the understanding of criminal behaviour as children learn through imitation and the environment which they grow up in have an effect on their behaviour. If a child has been brought up around abuse, criminal activity or consistent aggression then the child is most likely to offend by imitating their role model which could be a parent, sibling or even just a role model which they look up to. Philip Zimbardo (1971) – Stanford prison experiment – Dr Philip Zimbardo created the Stanford prison experiment in 1971, the aim of this experiment was to find out the psychological effects of prison life, and to what extent can moral people be seduced to act immorally. The study consisted of 24 students selected out of 75, the roles of these 24 men were randomly assigned, 12 to play prison guards and 12 to play prisoners. The prison set up was built inside the Stanford’s psychological department, doors where taken of laboratory rooms and replaced with steel bars in order to create cells. At the end of the corridor was the small opening which became the solitary confinement for the ‘bad prisoners’. Throughout the prison there were no windows or clocks to judge the passage in time, which resulted in time distorting experiences. After only a few hours, the participants adapted to their roles well beyond expectations, the officers starting displaying authorisation and subject some of the prisoners to humiliation and torture whilst the prisoners developed passive attitudes towards the guards and accepted the physical abuse that was given to them. On the second day with surprise an unexpected rebellion broke out, reinforcement was called and more guards where to be on duty however the prisoners refused to leave their cells, barricading themselves in. This early in to the experiment the prisoners had already felt a loss of identity to the extent they started to refer to themselves as their inmate number rather than name. Even Dr Zimbardo himself started to lose sight of his role in the experiment believing he was in fact a ‘prison superintendent’ rather than a psychologist. Due to the extent of the rebellion the guards were forced to show more authority over them which led to the creation of the ‘privileged cell’. In order to break down the ‘superior’ inmates the guards placed the good prisoners in the privileged cell for a few hours, then placed the good prisoners back into the bad cells causing confusion within the inmates, breaking the trust and isolating them. Within a week the study was abandoned as the experiment was no longer a simple simulation, instead the guards saw the prisoners as troublemakers they were made out to be. In response to this they began stepping up control, surveillance and aggression whilst the prisoner started breaking down emotionally being unable to handle the situation anymore. From the observations and information given by Dr Zimbardo’s reports, this study has helped in the understanding of criminal behaviour as it relates to imitation and conformity. The guards imitated the behaviour of real guards adapting the role quiet quickly. The prisoners also adapted the role quickly falling into depression and conforming to each other. This also helps how a person mental state can change their behaviour, with the prisoners they soon became depressed and mentally unstable, and this shows that when put into a certain disciplinary situation the mind adapts causing them to act immorally. Solomon Ashce (1951) – Conformity experiment- Solomon Ashce conducted the conformity experiment in 1951. The aim of this experiment was to investigate the extent of social pressure from a majority group can affect a person to conform. For this experiment Ashe used a lab experiment. Ashe used 8 participants for this experiment, 7 confederates and 1 naive participant. The 7 confederates had previously agreed to what their responses would be when presented with the line task. However the real participant had no knowledge of this and was led to believe that the other 7 participants were also real. With this experiment each person had to state aloud which line was most like the target line, (A, B or C). The answer was always an obvious one. The real participant always gave his or her answer last in order to see if they conformed or not. In some trials, the confederates gave the wrong answer whereas in some they gave the correct obvious answer. In the experiment there was 18 trials altogether and the confederates gave the wrong answer 12 out of the total 18. Ashce main observation was to find out if the real participant would end up conforming based on the majority views given by the other 7 participants. The results were then drawn up and out of the 18 trails, around 75% of the trials the real participant conformed even though he or she knew the answers were wrong. From the observations, this study has helped in the understanding of criminal behaviour as it explains that criminals may have previously been highly exposed to such aggressive behaviour causing them to conform. This shows that publicly any source of aggressive behaviour or criminal activity can lead to conformity causing more criminal behaviour. Anderson and Dill (2000) – Violence in video games study- Both Anderson and Dill conducted the relation between violence and video games study in 2000. The aim of this study was to find out how violent video games relate to aggressive behaviour. Their first study consisted of 227 students which were given a questionnaire in order to get data on their aggressive behaviour patterns. This study looked at the long-term exposure to video games and what effect it has on aggression towards people. The findings of the first study relating to the questionnaire came back with positive relations between the violence portrayed in video games and aggressive behaviour. The second study which Anderson and Dill conducted was to approach the impact that video games have on aggressive thoughts, social view and mood of a person. This study consisted of 210 students which were given a choice of 2 video games a non violent game ‘Myst’ or a violent interactive video game ‘Wolfstein 3D’. With the non violent game the objective was to travel the island of Myst, finding clues and making your own ending depending on the journey you took. With the violent game the objective was to eliminate the enemy ‘Adolf Hitler’ choosing your own hero and variety of weapons. With each game the students were allocated 3 slots for a period of 15minutes each. The findings of this study concluded Anderson and Dills knowledge and opinions that those exposed to the violent video game gained more aggressive behaviour than those who were not exposed to violence. From the observations, this study has helped in the understanding of criminal behaviour as it states that playing video games may increase aggressive behaviour because the violent acts are continually repeated throughout the game. Video games also encourage players to identify and interact through role play of their favourite characters causing them to imitate the character they are playing. Referring to first person in a game, it causes lead players to make their own decisions in the game affecting the actions of the character. Anderson and Dills studies show that after a limited amount of time playing violent video games, a player can start to automatically prime aggressive thoughts which can lead to aggressive behaviour. This shows that continually playing violent video games can affect a person’s thought patters leading to automatic aggressive behaviour through imitation of their favourite characters which could lead to criminal activity. Jahoda name study (1954)- Jahoda created the name study or as it is also called the self fulfilling prophecy. Jahoda studied the Ashanti tribe people who gave their boys ‘soul names’ depending on what day of the week they were born. For example, boys born a Monday were expected to be peaceful and full of good, whereas boys born on Wednesday which were called ‘Kwaku’ were expected to be aggressive and quick tempered. Jahoda found that when looking at prison and court records 13. 5% of boys that had been referred to court to court where from boys that were born on Wednesday, yet they were responsible for over 22% of violent crimes which was significantly higher than would be expected and shows that Wednesdays boys tended to live up to their reputation. However as for the boys born on Monday, they found that only 6. 9% of all juvenile cases where of minor offences. This implies that stereotypes of the boys behaviours depending on which day of the week they were born caused them to live up to expectations of their names. Jahoda concluded from all this that there was indeed nothing magical about the day of the week the boys were born on but of effect of expectations has on a person’s behaviour. From the observations and findings, this study has helped in the understanding of criminal behaviour as it links to the effect of rehabilitation and the study of the self fulfilling prophecy. If the offenders have the expectation that they should behave in such a way, rehabilitation may be more difficult. Overall the psychological theory of criminal behaviour suggests that negative expectations cause curtain’s to behave towards others in a specific way because their stereotypes – self fulfilling prophecy. Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) – Self fulfilling prophecy- Both Rosenthal and Jacobson also conducted a self fulfilling prophecy study and the way that people behave according to profiling or being stereotyped in 1968. Their study was conducted on students in a classroom which was also known as the ‘Pygmalion in the classroom’. The students were then put into groups of what the students think they will achieve, where they were then treated in a way that their ability group could achieve. All students completed an IQ test before the study. The findings of this study concluded Rosenthal and Jacobson’s theory that when people are put into groups or have been stereotyped into a group can cause people’s behaviour to change as they will live up to the expectations of the stereotype. The findings found were that after two years the students that were put into the group for higher levels achieved higher than the other students in any other group. These students were known to have been given additional feedback and extra attention so the finding expected had were correct. From the findings, this study has helped in the understanding of criminal behaviour as it shows that when categorised into a stereotype, people soon learn to live up to that expectation, behaving in a certain way. This also has an impact on a person’s self esteem, causing them to act undesirably and maybe even lead them to turn to crime. Eden (1990) – Self fulfilling prophecy- Eden also conducted the self fulfilling prophecy study in 1990, this study explains why some people turn to crime due to the way they have been stereotyped or labelled into a certain group. For this study, Eden looked at the training of 1000 Israeli soldiers and had them organised into 29 platoons. Some platoon trainers were told their groups were above the average potential but other trainers were told nothing. The findings of this study showed that after 10 weeks the performance of all soldiers were assessed and was found that on both the written exam and weapon test, the soldiers who had been told they were above the average potential did overall better than others, even though all soldiers were at an average level. These findings concluded Eden’s expectations that when labelled into a certain group, a person can adjust to behave according to expectations within the labelled group. This study has helped in understanding of criminal behaviour as it shows the stereotypes and labelled groups can influence a person’s self esteem leading them to behave in a certain way and if the stereotype is negative it can cause a person to turn to crime. Sheehan (1983) – TV violence and aggression Sheehan conducted the TV violence and aggression study in 1983. This study consisted of a group of middle class children aged between 5 and 10 to help find the link between children’s TV viewing and aggressive behaviour. Throughout the study data was gathered about the participants’ parents and the researchers also asked about the children’s aggressive fantasies to whether it would physically injure a person. Sheehan found that there were correlations between viewing violence and peer rated correlations for children that were aged between 8 and 10, with the correlations being stronger for the boys than the girls. The results were recorded by looking whether the child injured of irritated another person. These findings can relate to the social learning theory as he found that boys were more likely to imitate male models but overall looking at the data Sheehan collected, those who watched violent TV and films became more aggressive towards others than those who did not. This study has helped in understanding of criminal behaviour as it shows that continuously watching violent and aggressive TV programmes can affect a person’s thought patterns leading to automatic aggressive behaviour and imitation of their favourite characters which could lead to criminal activity.